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Thurgood Marshall-The Great Dissenter

Thurgood Marshall was the instrument of meaningful change in the civil rights movement. He was born on July 2, 1908 to William Marshall and Norma Williams and a grandson to a former slave. In 1930 he graduated from the Lincoln University and then applied to the University of Maryland Law School but was denied because he was African American. Because of this he attended Howard University Law School and graduated 1st in his class. After graduation Marshall opened a law office in Baltimore and then challenged the University of Maryland Law School’s policy of segregation on the fact that because on equal facilities exist for law school under Plessy v. Ferguson, thus desegregating the University of Maryland. He worked inside the law for change. Marshall also founded the NAACP Legal Defense Fund where he then fought for racial justice; included the fight against segregation. He then argued his most famous court case, Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, in which the Supreme Court ruled that “We conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of ‘separate but equal’ has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal” and desegregated public schools. Marshall then argued his case twice again to further the integration of schools. In total he argued 32 cases before the Supreme Court and ultimately won 29 of them. One of which, the Supreme Court ruled that a Southern state’s exclusion of African American voters from primary elections. Later in 1961, President John F. Kennedy nominated Thurgood Marshall to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit and then in 1965 Johnson appointed him to the post of solicitor general. One of Marshall’s proudest achievements was that of the 112 opinions he wrote on the 2nd Circuit bench, none were overturned on appeal. Finally in 1967, Johnson nominated Marshall to the Supreme Court and exclaimed that it was "the right thing to do, the right time to do it, the right man and the right place". Marshall stressed the need for equitable and just treatment of the country’s minorities and was a judicial activist. Marshall was committed to universal civil rights and civil liberties. He took a stand and dissented many a time when he felt it necessary, cough cough Clarence Thomas. He was the instrument of change

Teddy Roosevelt is one of the most influential presidents for numerous reasons, starting with his involvement in the Spanish-American war with the Rough Riders. Roosevelt resigned from the Navy Department to be a lieutenant colonel, helping end the war. Along with foreign affairs, Roosevelt wielded his Big Stick and received the right to both build and fortify the up and coming Panama Canal, through the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, which would not only provide security for the American Navy (as opposed to having to sail all the
way around the tip of South America), but also trade would benefit greatly,
causing lower prices for Americans. This was achieved through just reparations
to the Panamanian government. Through his Roosevelt Corollary, Roosevelt
pledged to protect the less-civilized South American countries through the
generous money and power given from the United States. Farther abroad, he
received the Nobel Peace Prize for negotiating the treaty that ended the
Russo-Japanese War. In the Philippines, he granted a generous civil
legislature, so that with the help of the United States, the Philippines could
get on the path of a democratic, home-rule regime. Not only was he an
astonishing president abroad, but at home, he helped create a remarkable,
modern United States. Through his Square Deal, Roosevelt aimed to control
corporations, have consumer protection, and conserve natural resources. Through
his Elkins Act of 1903, and Hepburn Act of 1906, he curbed the power of the
rebate and expanded the ICC, allowing them to nullify existing rates and
stipulate maximum rates, thus gaining the true name as the ‘Trust Buster’.
Although making sure big business didn’t exercise complete power, he regulated,
rather than dominated big business, allowing for both the common man and big
business to benefit from Roosevelt’s policies. Conservation-wise, Roosevelt
instituted the Meat Inspection Act of 1906 and the Pure Food and Drug Act of
1906, creating a safer precedent for the consuming American. Along with this,
through the Newlands Act of 1902, the appointment of Gifford Pinchot as the
head of the Division of Forestry, the Forest Reserve Act, and also his own
personal goal of conservation, Roosevelt conserved around 150 million acres of Federal
Reserve lands, which was three times more than his three predecessors,
combined. Socially, Roosevelt was the first president to entertain a black man,
Booker T. Washington, at the White House. In addition, he helped create the
modern game of football by pushing for better regulation of the rules, right as
it was declining because of the savage pre-existing rules. Overall, Roosevelt
achieved remarkable feats during his presidency, both at home and abroad, and
should be remembered as the most influential, more modern president.

JP Morgan

JP Morgan significantly contributed to American history by using his wealth to financially aid struggling businesses, banks, and even the government. At the beginning of his career, JP Morgan played a role in the success of the Union Army in the Civil War by selling rifles to the Army. In addition, Morgan offered aid to some troubled railroad companies. He was involved in reorganizing and consolidating the Albany & Susquehanna (1869), the New York Central (1885), the Philadelphia & Reading (1886), and the Chesapeake & Ohio (1888). Morgan’s influence was primarily felt by the the federal government. In 1871 when a deadlocked Congress could not pass legislation regarding the salaries for soldiers, Morgan went ahead and paid the payroll for the entire US Army. Also, Morgan bailed out the federal government on two occasions. First, Morgan loaned the government more than $60 million in gold to save the American gold standard. More importantly, in the economic chaos following the Panic of 1907, Morgan saved the US economy by stabilizing the American banks. He organized a meeting of some of the country’s top financiers and convinced them to bail out the banks in order to stabilize the economy. Morgan’s role was pivotal as he decided which banks were steady enough and which were in need of his financial support. Morgan also saved New York City from economic collapse by paying off more than $30 million in bonds. Finally, Morgan was a generous man that distributed his wealth through various charities and philanthropies. He was the driving force behind the Metropolitan Museum of Art through his service as president and his extensive donations from his personal collection. Morgan donated other personal relics to the Museum of Natural History such as “collections of minerals, gems, meteorites, amber, books, prehistoric South American relics, American Indian costumes, fossil vertebrates, skeletons, and the mummy of a pre-Columbian miner preserved in copper salts” according to historian Jean Strouse. Finally, Morgan paid the salaries of many clergymen throughout his life and donated over $500,000 to the construction of the Cathedral of St. John the Divine. Morgan’s business ventures were essential to the survival of our nation and his donations helped establish Museums and other public wonders that are still frequently used today. Without Morgan’s influence on American history it is safe to say that our country would not be the world power that it is today.

Susan B.  Anthony is wonder woman. Her progressive mindset is incredible and her impact in history is undeniable. Growing up in a Quaker household, she was taught progressive and accepting values. Not only did she grow up to make an everlasting impact on the lives of women in America, but she also fought against slavery. She and her family hosted anti-slavery activists every Sunday at their ranch, including Frederick Douglass and William Lloyd Garrison. In 1863 she organized a Women's National Loyal League to help raise awareness and popularity to outlaw slavery with a 13th Amendment. Later on in her life she developed a passion for reforming society to become more equal for men and women. For education, in 1853 at the state teachers’ convention, Susan B. Anthony demanded that women receive better pay (more comparable to men) and to put an end to restricting women from the profession. After years of protesting and speaking, in the 1890s, Anthony raised $50,000 to help admit women into the University of Rochester (In comparison she made $110 dollars in a whole year while teaching). Finally her efforts paid off and the University of Rochester began admitting women. In 1869, Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton formed the National Woman's Suffrage Association (NWSA). Demonstrating her unparalleled courage, she defied the unjust law to vote in the 1972 Presidential election resulting in a trial. Despite her consequences, she continued to show her fearlessness by publishing a radical paper titled The Revolution (subsequently lecturing for over 6 years to pay the debt off). No she wouldn't stop there, in fact, she increased her activist agenda by leading a woman’s protest and presenting a speech entitled “Declaration of Rights” at the 1976 Centennial. Her efforts were far superior to any other women’s rights activist and as a reward, the 19th Amendment was named the Susan B. Anthony Amendment.

 

Aaron Burr

Aaron Burr may have been the first original criminal in American History. Burr is famous for killing Alexander Hamilton in a duel, but even worse, Burr tried to establish an independent state in the western part of the country and was later indicted on treason and almost executed in 1807. Burr always tried to do things within the American Government but Alexander Hamilton kept shooting his attempts down, creating a lasting rivalry between the two. In 1804, after the election of 1800 where Jefferson beat Burr, Burr ran for governor in New York with most likely the intentions of uniting New England to secede, but because of Hamilton’s opposition Burr lost once again fueling the rivalry. Angered by a derogatory remark made by Hamilton about Burr’s daughter, Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel. In the duel which took place in NEw Jersey, Burr murdered Hamilton. Burr had to flee to Philadelphia after murder charges of murder were being brought down upon him. While in Philadelphia Burr, conspired to take land westward and create an independent nation by conquering Mexico and encouraging states west of the Appalachians to secede. Burr left office and recruited more people to his scheme including attempting to get ruthless British support but also getting James Wilkinson, the current governor of the Louisiana Territory. Wilkinson eventually ratted him out just as they were beginning to implement their plan. The only reason reason Burr was not convicted was that his good friend John Marshall was presiding over the trial. Marshall used strict construction to prove his innocence. He then left for Europe after his reputation was thoroughly ruined. Burr basically was the criminal for which villains would only follow suit too. Burr was not influenced by anyone, rather he influenced villains to come

J Robert Oppenheimer

J. Robert Oppenheimer, affectionately known as “The Father of the Atomic Bomb” was the lead physicist behind the Manhattan Project, an ambitious attempt at a super weapon that would change the course of history forever.  Many historians believe that the advent of the nuclear bomb actually saved lives due to fear of an apocalyptic aftermath.  The invention spearheaded by him would influence not only American Politics, but the politics of the world from 1945 and onwards.  He was a well known figure in the Scientific Community, even serving as the Director of Princeton's Science department, the Institute for Advanced Study.  Oppenheimer published many peer reviewed studies including but not limited to Cosmic Rays, Black Holes, Quantum Mechanics, Molecular Wave Functions, Quantum Tunneling, and Nuclear Fusion.  It is hypothesized that had he not been such a controversial figure due to his left wing ties and advent of the most deadly device ever created, he would have won the Nobel Prize for physics based upon his work on the Oppenheimer-Phillips Process, as well as his theories on Black Holes which would later be proven to be correct years after his long battle with Throat Cancer.  He also shaped the world through his political actions as head of the United States Atomic Energy Commission where his character became known outside of the scientific community.  He was a strong advocate for an international body such as the U.N. to control all Nuclear armaments and even warned of an arms race with the Soviet Union even prior to the creation of their own atomic bomb. Well loved by the Scientific Community, Oppenheimer was the figurehead of the battle between right-wing militarists, and left-wing intellectuals. His Legacy is clear and present even today, 54 years after his death.  Many of his students went on to become Nobel Prize laureates themselves, making groundbreaking discoveries, one even proving Oppenheimer’s black hole theory correct.  The Nuclear Bomb has left its mark on the world in a non-destructive sense of the word, it is believed that the reason the cold war stayed cold, was due mainly to threat of mutually assured destruction through the nuclear bomb.  Oppenheimer’s chilling recital of the Hindu God Vishnu, “Now I am become death, destroyer of Worlds” truly shows the power wielded initially by this single man.

John Marshall

John Marshall was the longest serving Chief Justice of the Supreme court, and arguably the most important as well.  To fully understand Marshall, his viewpoints and his incorruptible nature, it is important to take a glance at his past.  In the Revolutionary War he served as a soldier in the militia before eventually being promoted to an Officer.  He often considered George Washington to be his greatest role model and influence, even writing a biography of his life during his time as Chief Justice.  Following his passing of the Virginia Bar and work as an attorney and civil recorder,  Marshall served as one of the delegates who ratified the Constitution, making him especially qualified for the job of Chief Justice.  During the next few years Marshall would continue his work as an attorney while repeatedly denying offers of employment from both Washington and Adam’s cabinets.  He eventually would agree to be one of the diplomats in the XYZ affair, and gained popular support after refusing to give a bribe to the French officials.  Finally he served temporarily as a representative before taking up the position of Secretary of State until his time of becoming Chief Justice of the Supreme Court.  In one of the first and arguably most important cases in American History, Marbury v. Madison, Marshall sided against his friend Marbury, yet he also declared the Judiciary act of 1989 unconstitutional, effectively establishing Judicial Review, allowing the Supreme Court to decide upon whether laws are constitutional or not, giving them near equal power with the other two branches.  John Marshall proved himself incorruptible when despite his personal opinions about the murder of his friend, he ruled that Burr’s actions despite being treasonous in nature were not in fact Treason given the definition in the Constitution.  In McCulloch V. Maryland John Marshall sided with the Second Bank of the United States stating that the elastic clause of the constitution provided proper justification for this bank and that Maryland could not place unjust taxes upon this bank.  Despite Cohens v. Virginia initially appearing to be a relatively unimportant case, it is actually incredibly important because it established and affirmed the ability for the Supreme Court to rule on State matters, cementing the Supreme Court as the ultimate authority in all United States legal matters.  John Marshall in the three related cases of Johnson v. M’Intosh, Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, and Worcester v. Georgia, proved himself as a defender of native rights.  In these cases he mainly established and reaffirmed tribal sovereignty over tribal lands, as well as their rights to be a domestic nation, the final case being the most important, ruling that state laws had no effect on Tribal lands.  Andrew Jackson is famously quoted as having said “John Marshall has made his decision now let him enforce it”, whereupon after many argue that he overstepped the system of checks and balances and continued with his Indian Removal as established by the Indian Removal act of 1831.  Overall, John Marshall played an incredibly important role in establishing the Supreme Court as an equal to the Executive and Legislative branches, and determining the Supreme Court’s power for centuries to come.

General: Ulysses S Grant

There are numerous reasons as to why General Ulysses S.  Grant is the most influential general in American history. A key general in the Civil War, Grant was one of the key people who saved the Union and allowed the North to win. Although as a young soldier he did not excel at first, after seeing the way generals should command their troops, from watching General Zachary Taylor and General Winfield Scott in the Mexican American War, he was able to gain experience. After this war, where many observed his courage and bravery in the battlefield, many saw the potential he had to lead group of soldiers. Some say that Grant had a drinking problem, yet many individuals who were close to him said that during war, he was focused on defeating his opponent and this problem did not create a major issue. Later in his life when the Civil War was happening, Grant became one of the leading generals for the Union. Initially leading ground troops at Fort Henry and Fort Donelson, his successes lead him to become a leading general in the war. When General Grant lead the Battle of Shiloh, even though he was able to defeat the enemy on the second day of the battle, he received some criticism. However, President Abraham Lincoln kept his trust in him, saying: “I can’t spare this man. He fights”. In a battle in one of the main confederate cities known as Vicksburg, Grant was able to make the enemy surrender. The surrender was a pivotal moment in the war, as the Confederacy lost confidence and was divided after this battle. The leadership he showed in these battles demonstrated his ability to lead an army as well as to win important battles. He believed that defeating the enemy, instead of trying to take land, was more crucial to winning the war. This was a unique belief, making him stand out from many other generals. Grant was very influential during this war, and without him, who knows what would have happened in the war. Grant was able to eventually become the president of the United States, showing that he was an individual who many admired and believed in while he was a general.

George Washington

George Washington is undoubtedly the most famous and looked up to name in all of American history. Throughout the nation his name is carried only with great pride and honor, as he was the founding father who is most responsible for the style of nation that over 300 million Americans cherish today. He first came into the limelight after he displayed impressive leadership during the Seven Years War from 1756-1763. He gained most of his fame and glory after being named Commander and Chief of the Continental army in 1775 at the Second Continental Congress. He went on to become the most celebrated General in United States history during the Revolutionary War. Washington’s legacy is best known by his heroic acts during the war like the night crossing of the Delaware River in 1776 on Christmas. His leadership of untrained militiamen was crucial to the war effort, but it was his guidance of the new nation after 1783 that marks Washington’s undenied and unmatched influence on his country. Once elected unanimously as the first president in 1788, George helped the republic get on its feet and for the first time in human history, he left it there when he resigned from office after 2 unchallenged terms. He very easily could have continued to reign over the states, but he turned down power on two different occasions in order to see the nation succeed as a democracy. In December of 1783 he resigned as commander and chief of the colonial army and refused to preside over the nation any longer than 2 terms in 1797 which became a common tradition by presidents until it was made law in 1947. These selfless decision to step down not only allowed the United States to survive its infancy, but also proved to the rest of the world that. Although very modest, Washington was not at all just a bystander in the political process, as he debated and supported many major documents which founded the nation-most importantly the Declaration and the Constitution. His last influential contribution to the new nation was the message in his farewell address, which encouraged a lack of foreign entanglements. This principle was commonly followed for over 100 years after the address and was one of many incredible things that General Washington did for our country.

  John Adams was the second president but that doesn’t necessarily mean that he is the second most influential. Adams served as Vice President under the Washington Presidency and later became President. But being President was not all he did, Adams was also a delegate on the First Continental Congress and during the Revolutionary War he served in France and Holland in diplomatic roles, and helped negotiate the Treaty of Paris. While on the Continental Congress he served on more committees than any other congressman. He was also on the board to create the Declaration of Independence, thus helping create it. While in office Adams navigated through the XYZ affair with France, he also sacrificed his reputation by wisely choosing to not expand the naval war with France despite being urged to do so. Adams was also the only President of the first five to not have slaves. Along with this his essays regarding the stamp act were some of the first to attack the concept of taxation without representation. Adams was one of the most influential figures in American history.

“During the Revolutionary War he served in France and Holland in diplomatic roles, and helped negotiate the treaty of peace. From 1785 to 1788 he was minister to the Court of St. James's, returning to be elected Vice President under George Washington.First

Vice President of the United States,

Second president of the United States,

Delegate on First Continental Congress,

Popular citic against the Stamp act and Townshend Acts

Helped negotiate Treaty of Paris, which officially ended the American Revolution,

Selected George Washington as president,

First of 5 first presidents to not hold slaves,

During the Continental Congresses he served on more committees than any other congressman—ninety in all, of which he chaired twenty.

Refused to accept French terms in the XYZ affair

He was on the board to create the Declaration of Independence, thus forth helping create it

The second president sacrificed his reputation by wisely choosing to not expand the naval war with France, despite being strongly encouraged to do so by federalists.

“His first widely published essays were attacks on the Stamp Act of 1765 and the legality of Britain to impose colonial taxation without representation.”

“One of John Adams' accomplishments that was controversial at the time was his successful defense of the British soldiers involved in the Boston Massacre of 1770; he considered it of paramount importance that they receive a fair trial regardless of his own political views.”